There Is No One Common Definition For Organized Crime,

There is no one common definition for organized crime, after extensive research criminologists seem to describe organized crime as, a criminal conspiracy of several persons motivated for economic enrichment. On the other hand, the FBI defines organized crime as, any group having some formalized structure and whose primary objective is to obtain through illegal activities.† Organized crime branches out into various criminal activities, such as cybercrime, money laundering, counterfeiting, illicit drug trafficking, and human trafficking to mention a few. Organized crime cells that involve drug trafficking systematically have a hierarchical system that include the upper level drug trafficker, high level drug trafficker, importer,†¦show more content†¦It is imperative that the candidate have some business experience and have a respectable lifestyle away from drug trafficking. Within a drug trafficking organization there is always that someone or group of people what are willing to take that next step into bigger shoes and take the lead. Such top job would only occur if the upper level drug trafficker is arrested. Although incarcerated the upper level drug trafficker may lose his spot on the totem pole, he can still call the shots from prison. Many organized crime and illicit drug trafficking seem to branch out hand in hand. A drug trafficking organization (DTO) is a criminal enterprise solely out to make money and without blinking an eye would economically exploit a person or persons in a heartbeat. There are some criminal cells that are very influential in that they can corrupt high ranking public officials. For the DTO to be successful corruption and violence is commanded. There have been several occasions where a commissioned officer, judge or a border patrol agent has given in to the greed of money and wealth and allowed a DTO to be able to comfortably move merchandise as needed. Should there be a problem, then the DTO utilizes violence in whatever form necessary to fix the problem at hand. It’s pathetic when illicit drug trafficking monies are included in Mexico’s economic value statistics. Six percent of the gross domestic product are that of illicit drugShow MoreRelatedMy Perception Of Organized Crime933 Words   |  4 PagesThere are few adults in this country who have not heard of the terms â€Å"Mafia†, the â€Å"Mob†, or â€Å"Organized Crime†. Hence, there are probably as many opinions of what these terms mean as there are people who know them. Over the years, my perceptions about organized crime came mainly through Hollywood productions or news accounts of criminal activity. Overall, I have had a disapproving opinion of organized crime. I would say that for the most part my perceptions prior to enrollment in this class have beenRead MoreOrganized Crime And Criminal Behavior904 Words   |  4 Pageshad a perspective of â€Å"organized crime† groups that did not view them in any other context other than a criminal ente rprise for ethnic groups. However, after several weeks of reading and research there is much more to the organizations. There are many groups that make up our society, and are considered social institutions. Organized crime groups are just one more of those social institutions. In this paper we will review the term social institution as it applies to organized crime, and reveal the theoriesRead MoreTheories And Rational Choice Theory1274 Words   |  6 Pageschoice theory. The two types of crimes that were chosen were organized crime, specifically focusing on gangs, and terrorism. Then the crimes will be compared and contrasted. Finally, the developmental theory will be applied to organized crime to explain why and how it happens. The rational choice theory will be applied to terrorism to explain what compels individuals to attempt this form of criminality. Organized Crime (Gangs) The definition of organized crime is â€Å"crime committed by groups engaged inRead MoreThe scene of organized crime has long since changed after the reign of Italian and Sicilian mafia,1600 Words   |  7 PagesThe scene of organized crime has long since changed after the reign of Italian and Sicilian mafia, and has evolved into modern terms. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines organized crime as any group having some manner of a formalized structure and whose primary objective is to obtain money through through illegal activities.. The motive is almost always to gain money, as stated in the definition given by the FBI, or significant power over a region. For such a large feat of gainingRead MoreThe World Becomes More Globalized And The Internet974 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction As the world becomes more globalized and the internet continues to provide a forum for unscrupulous organizations and persons, Transnational Crime Organizations (TCOs) have evolved from the traditional local community thugs to more fluid, nebulas, and adaptive entities connected to other groups. Given their more nibble far reaching status and connections to other nefarious organizations, are TCOs a bigger threat to National Security than previously thought and should they receive aRead MoreEssay on Organized Crime Wthin The Unit1461 Words   |  6 Pages Organized Crime Within the United States Organized crime is a widespread topic of concern among many Americans due to its popularity in the media and entertainment industry. The public is aware of its existence, yet is not fully aware of why and how this complex â€Å"underworld† exists. In order to fully understand this area of criminology, one must take into account the characteristics of organized crime, the variables that allow organized crime to thrive, its large-scale effects on society, andRead More Theories Explaining Juvenile Crime Essay examples1601 Words   |  7 PagesJuvenile Crime Many theories, at both the macro and micro level, have been proposed to explain juvenile crime. Some prominent theories include Social Disorganization theory, Differential Social Organization theory, Social Control theory, and Differential Association theory. When determining which theories are more valid, the question must be explored whether people deviate because of what they learn or from how they are controlled? Mercer L. Sullivan’s book, â€Å"Getting Paid† Youth Crime and WorkRead MoreCja 384 Controlling Organized Crime1370 Words   |  6 Pagescontrol organized crime and not just in the United States of America but also abroad. This is a country and others are wrought with opportunities, but many would seek to use those opportunities improperly to illegal ends. The consequences of these criminals and their actions can be detrimental to the overall well-being of the general populace by introducing negative elements into the greater whole of society. For that reason, and many others, numerous agencies were created to police these crimes andRead MoreControlling Organized Crime1200 Words   |  5 PagesControlling Organize Crime Paper Louis Pierre CJA/384 May 6, 2013 University of phoenix Professor: Glen Winters Controlling Organize Crime Paper Organize crime is a conspiratorial activity involving the coordination of numerous people in the planning and execution of illegal acts or in the pursuit of a legitimate objective by unlawful means, for example, threatening a legitimate business to get stake in it. However, organize crime involves continuous commitment by primary members, althoughRead MoreClassification of Gangs847 Words   |  4 Pagesinterested both sociologists and law enforcement. For the purpose of law enforcement, a gang is generally defined as an organized group among the members of which there is well-designed communication. This paper evaluates classification schemes from current research for gangs. The objective is to discover the issues and problems in creating classifications for gangs including a definition which delineates what constitutes a gang and differentiates it from other social and sports groups. The paper also

Lord God, God And God - 851 Words

The Hebrew Bible is a redaction, a single document stitched together using different sources. The first book, Genesis, means origin: both the origin of the world (creation) and modern humans (genealogy). It is the product of two sources known as the Priestly source (P) and the Yahwistic or Non-Priestly Source (J). The two sources present different versions of the supreme being: God and Lord God. While God and Lord God both have immense power and the unique ability to create, they are separate characters with separate personalities. Lord God is like a Greek anthropomorphic god with human desires and limitations, whereas God is an all-powerful abstract being of pure spirit. Lord God, like a Greek anthropomorphic god, has a human form and body. We first learn about Lord God in chapter two, the second creation story. Firstly, Lord God â€Å"formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath.† (2.7) The verb â€Å"to form† implies that Lord God made man with his hands, and he has a breath, so he is not just an immaterial being. Therefore, Lord God must have a physical form because he is directly involved in the work of creation, not just commanding things to be. We see evidence of his physical presence later when Adam and Eve â€Å"[hear] the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (3.8) For Lord God to be walking and making noise in the garden, he would need to have feet, and by extension, a body. In addition to his human physique, Lord God has a humanShow MoreRelatedThe Lord Of God Essay1656 Words   |  7 PagesSent by whom? And what orders? In the New Testament context, the One who sends is the LORD Jesus Christ, and the order of the LORD is to â€Å"[equip] the saints, for the work of ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ, till we all come to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of GOD† (Eph 4:12-13). This work of the LORD had been planned and appointed before the foundation of the world. GOD who sees the end from the beginning has already appointed all things before He began timeRead MoreSummary : The Lord God 901 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Why do you keep on saying that I am your Lord, when you refuse to do what I say? Anyone who comes and listens to me and obeys me† Luke 6:46-47 (Contemporary English Version Bible) When a society starts to do things that are unpleasant to the eyes of God, this will be a society in which sooner or later God s judgment will be evident, and not because God is bad who wants the death of those who sinned, but on the contrary God delights in showing mercy, â€Å"Suppose wicked people stop sinning and startRead MoreNotes On The Lord God2148 Words   |  9 Pagesthe Lord was upon me, and he brought me out in the Spirit of the Lord and set me down in the middle of the valley; it was full of bones. 2 And he led me around among them, and behold, there were very many on the surface of the valley, and behold, they were very dry. 3 And he said to me, â€Å"Son of man, can these bones live?† And I answered, â€Å"O Lord God, you know.† 4 Then he said to me, â€Å"Prophesy over these bones, and say to them, O dry bones, hear the word of the Lord. 5 Thus says the Lord God to theseRead MoreReflection On God s The Lord God Planted A Garden Essay1063 Words    |  5 PagesIn this essay, I will take the position that God waited to create Eve in order to properly prepare Adam to be a husband/leader. Being the very first being created on earth and having no experience in how to live, God would need to teach Adam the necessary steps for a productive and successful life. Especially since there was a fallen being roaming around, God needed Adam’s full attention to establish a relationship with him, teach him the importance of guarding something precious, and that obeyingRead MoreThe Laughter Of Jesus And The Lord Of God2050 Words   |  9 Pagesjustice. The type of justice only an omnipotent Lord can bring forth. The satisfaction these individuals find occurs when the Lord is satisfied. As for those that weep, their tears will release the sorrow their soul contains. The laughter Jesus brings forth for them will release their joy, a joy that comes with the arrival of the Kingdom of God. In verse 6:22, Jesus calls upon those that are hated or excluded due to their identification or belief in God or Jesus. While they may be suffering now, soonRead MoreThe Lord God And His Oppressive Punishment927 Words   |  4 PagesThe Lord God and his Oppressive Punishment According to Genesis in the Hebrew bible’s story of Adam and Eve, The Lord God is the creator of everything and an authoritarian. The Lord God is the supreme being in the story where he has absolute power and expects obedience from his creatures or subjects. The Lord God created the universe, the earth, the land, the seas, plants, and all living creatures. The Lord God also created the first humans, which were Adam and Eve. The Lord God placed themRead MoreThe Notion of God in the Lord of the Rings Essay1887 Words   |  8 PagesDaniel and the Book of Revelation are inherently religious and centered around God. As a result, most later apocalyptic literature is also religiously centered, with God as the instrumental entity (Shaffer 142). Those who have read J.R.R. Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings remember most vividly the final great battle where evil is overcome in the apocalyptic ending of an age. Tolkiens bit of apocalyptic literature in The Lord of the Rings seems dif ferent from traditional religious notions of an apocalypseRead MoreReview Of Tanna Anderson s The Lord God Essay1062 Words   |  5 Pagesnear the end of Isaiah’s ministry and the end of Israel’s exile? 4. Preventative vs. Redemptive Prophecy; how does this affect the application to the church? 5. Is Isaiah or God the speaker during this particular prophecy? 6. The closest proclamation text is in Isaiah 65:13 which declares, â€Å"the LORD God† not just â€Å"LORD† as is stated in Isaiah 65:8. Is this significant? 7. Who is the audience â€Å"they† that the speaker is speaking too? 8. What audience does the general context of Isaiah 65:1 establishRead MoreSavagery in Lord of the Flies and City of God Essay1488 Words   |  6 Pages William Golding and Fernando Meirelles present these ideas in their works, the novel Lord of the Flies and the film City of God. They tell the stories of two places with no rational legal authorities, where savageness is way of life. In these stories, Piggy and Rocket are similar in that they become outsiders in their communities because of their mindfulness and empathy to savagery. In his novel, Lord of the Flies, Golding uses Piggys character to show how intelligence cannot survive inRead MoreAnalysis Of Timothy s God And The Lord Jesus Christ 902 Words   |  4 PagesIn 2 Timothy 4:1-4 Paul charges Timothy along with Christians of today with â€Å"God and the Lord Jesus Christ† as his witnesses to, â€Å"Preach the Word!† This exhortation does not come without merit, Paul gives his reasons in verse three and four why it is important. â€Å"For the time will come when they will not endure sound doctrine, but according to their own desires, because they have itching ears, they will heap up for themselves teachers; and they will turn their ears away from the truth, and be turned

Any Two Love or War Poems Studied and Compare and Contrast Free Essays

The first poem I am going to write about is the Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred lord Tennyson. Alfred was born on the 6th of August 1809 in Lincolnshire England. Alfred died on the 6th of October 1892. We will write a custom essay sample on Any Two Love or War Poems Studied and Compare and Contrast or any similar topic only for you Order Now The poem is talking about war that he read in the newspaper and he wrote a poem about them. The battle took place in the 1854. Alfred was not a soldier in the war he think war is a good thing. In the first verse it talks about the six hundred soldiers going to war in the valley of death. He talks about the soldier being ambushed in the valley by the Russian army. The commander told the soldiers to go to the valley. The soldiers travel about six or seven miles in the valley â€Å"half a league, half a league, half a league onwards all in the valley of death†. There is a good use of tripling half a league, half a league, half a league three times at start sets up a rhythm you can nearly hear the gallop of the horses hooves as you say the words. There is personification in this verse â€Å"Valley of death† this is a good because it suggests to us that the Light Brigade are going to lose their lives in the valley few of them will survive the battle. In the second verse he talks about the soldiers going up the valley ready to battle â€Å"Forward the light brigade†. The soldier didn’t have a choice to go and battle in the valley of death. The soldiers had to go and fight because that was there duty to do as the commander asks them to do saw. Alfred said the soldiers was brave because it said in the poem â€Å"theirs not to make reply Theirs not reason why Theirs but to do or die† This tells us that Alfred is telling that the soldiers was brave to fight for there country. In this verse there is personification â€Å"In to the valley of death†. This is a good use of personification because it describes the valley of death because of the battle in the valley. Ther is a ggod verb the â€Å"Blunder’d† is good because it means making a mistake. This underlines the fact that what the Light Brigade is doing is going to end in disaster. In the third verse it talks about the cannons shooting the light brigade â€Å"cannon to the right of them, cannons to the left of them Cannons in front of them† this is good repetition of the word â€Å"Cannan† underlines how senusly survounded the Light Brigade was by the enemy. It also tells us that with connons all round them the Light Brigade were moving into a deadly trap as there was no escape route. Theres a good persanification bthere â€Å"Jaws of hell† this is good because â€Å"Jaws† are used for eating and gobbling up food. The idea is that the soldiers are going to be eaten up by the fireing canans of the russians. The word â€Å"Hell† suggest that the place and circumstances are horrible like hell. There is a sense of doom. Alfred lord Tennyson tells that the light brigade was bravely to go to the valley and fight. â€Å"Boldly they rode and well† The light brigade was foolish to go to the valley of death because the enemy was in the top and they could shoot them easily. In the forth verse it talks about the Light Brigade ready to battle as they take there swards out. â€Å"Flash’d all their sabres bare† â€Å"Flash’d as they tum’d in air† The light brigade was fighting the gunners away and charging the army away. Theres a good use of verbs in this poem â€Å"Flash’d, sabring, charging, plunged at the beginning of the verse underlines the heroic bravery with which they rode into the valley. â€Å"Reel’d shalter’d and shunderd, This verbs at the end of the cerse tell us that the battle went badly for the Light Brigade and they are forced to retread. Alfred was talking about â€Å"all the world was wondered† as the Light Brigade was trying to fight. At the end it tells that the Light Brigade was retiring from the battle â€Å"reeled from the sabre stroke†. The soldiers was tired after the battle â€Å"shattered and shunder’d†. The last two lines is saying that the light brigade is going back but not the six hundred that had started in the battle â€Å"Then they rode back but not, Not the six hundred† In verse five it describing the battle that the Light Brigade fought in the valley of death. Alfred is saying what was the battle like to fight in. â€Å"While horses and hero fell† he is telling that the soldiers in the Light Brigade were being killed while they were fighting. In the last lines it tells â€Å"All that was left of them, Left of the six hundred† In this verse there are personification â€Å"The jaws of death† There’s use of onomatopoeia â€Å"Thundered† and â€Å"Stormed† as you hear the noises in your head, you are made aware of the seriousness of the attack against the Light Brigade, the cannons are shooting them to pieces. In the last verse of the poem is telling how proud were the soldiers when they came back of the battle â€Å"when can their glory fade† Alfred is praise war and fighting and the soldiers in the Light Brigade. â€Å"Honour the charge they made,† he is praising the charge that the Light Brigade made in the battle. Alfred is saying that the Light Brigade was brave to fight in the battle in the valley â€Å"Noble six hundred†. He uses onomatopoeia In this verse like â€Å"Thundered† and Stormed† as you hear the noises in your head you are made aware of the seriousness of the attack against the light brigade. The second poem I’m going to talk about is Dulce ET Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen. Wilfred Owen was born 18 of March 1893 in Shropshire England and he dead in the war in France in November 1918. In these to poems there are differences and similarities. In Wilfred Owens poem he has written from his experiences in war than Alfred had only read it from the newspaper. Wilfred was saying that war was a terrible thing and Alfred was praising war in his poem. I think that Alfred lord Tennyson is wrong about war, war isn’t I good thing its terrible and Wilfred is write about war. The similarities in the two war poems are the both lots of soldiers are scared in the two poems. In the two poems there are creating a picture in your mined that there are people dieing in the poems. â€Å"In all my dreams before my helpless sight He plunges at me guttering, choking, drowning in Wilfred Owens poem and in Alfred poem is saying, â€Å"sobering the gunners there†. The poem starts off with a description of the soldiers. This is totally contrast to light Brigade where the soldiers are â€Å"bold† and â€Å"Nobel†. Soldiers in Dulce ET Decorum Est look like a bunch of old women â€Å"Nock-kneed† and â€Å"coughing like hags†. The poem starts with a smile. The soldiers are compared to â€Å"old beggars under sacks† This is complete different with how we expect soldiers to be like they are tall and strong and their backs strait not â€Å"bent double† Theirs a good use of repetition in this verse. Repetition of the idea of old. â€Å"old beggars† and â€Å"hags† like old women. This contras again with how soldiers should be we expect them to be young and full of life. There are some verbs in this verse such as â€Å"trudge† â€Å"marched asleep† â€Å"drunken with fatigue† suggest totally exhausted men who are nearly dead on their feet. This is totally different to the types of verbs used in the â€Å"Light Brigade† such as â€Å"charging† and â€Å"flashing† of swards. In verse 2 there is totally chaos when someone shouts out â€Å"Gas! Gas! Quick boys† The soldiers are so tired that their reactions in finding and putting n their gas masks is really slow. Words like â€Å"clumsy† â€Å"Stumbling† underline that their movements are awkward and tired. In contrast the actions of the soldiers in the charge of the light brigade are fast and effective â€Å"boldly they rode and well† From this point onwards Dulce focuses on one induidiual man the one who fails to get his mask on and dies because his lungs are filling up with gas and he cannot breath, very different to the light brigade which focuses throughout on six hundred men. Dulce forces the reader to become emotionally involved we care about the terrible death of this one man but in light brigade because there are six hundred of them we seem to care less that most of them die. In verse 3 Wilfred Owen begins to talk directly to you. Earlier he has used â€Å"I† â€Å"I saw him drowning† which means that he personally was at the battle and witnessed what happened. Again this technique makes us feel sorry for the man who died. Differently to Alfred was never a soldier he read about the light brigade battle in the news paper the uses the pronoun â€Å"They† throughout his poem so again we don’t feel close to these soldiers. The imagery in verse 3 of dulce is associated with parts of the body and ideas about likes that the reader finds disgusting e. g. the block came gargling from the frat and â€Å"obscene as cancer† These quotes underline how terrible death of this man was and if only people understood this they would stop pretending that it is great to die for your country Tennyson dreams that it is glorious , noble and brave die for your country. How to cite Any Two Love or War Poems Studied and Compare and Contrast, Essay examples

Whipped Inspiration free essay sample

Whipped into Inspiration â€Å"Cheer is your pulse, heartbeat, your breathing. It’s rhythm of your life. It’s the expression and movement, in happiness, joy, sadness and envy. † –Jaques D’Amboise. Every since I was a little child, I would be astonished and mesmerized by how cheerleaders could captivate your attention on their movements. One simple technique could keep you wondering all night. Questions you would ask yourself would be; how did she do that or how much practice did it take her just to perfect that one single move? I’ve had this urge, ever since I was 4 years old, to be able to entertain thousands of millions of people on the competition dance floor. I’ve always thought that life is about leaving your mark in the world. I feel that through cheer I could transmit my life story and leave my work. I know that I will get to the top by practicing and learning many different styles of dance along my pilgrimage. We will write a custom essay sample on Whipped Inspiration or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page â€Å"You do a certain movement and tons of people in the crowd go â€Å"Oooh†, and you didn’t even need to say anything, tell a joke, and sing lyrics because you were just moving to the beat. That always gets them† –Alonzo Jones. Before I found my passion for cheer, I only had one goal in my mind. That goal was become the â€Å"THE BEST† cheerleader. I’ve been told that dreaming big will only lead to disappointment but I’m a very fierce competitor. I’m perseverant and tenacious in achieving my goals. I remember that, before I was introduced to cheer, I wanted to somehow want to be unique in our society. Before cheer, I was mostly focused on designing my ideal life. I want to build my life towards something. That â€Å"something† is my goals in life. The first time I saw a cheer routine was when I saw a cheerleading competition. On that evening, the cheer music was blasting and there was the team on the stage. Anybody who was brave enough would go up there and dance in front of thousands of individuals. I was sitting down beside my mother and we were just watching in a gaze. Proud fans clapped and screamed as the cheerleading team approached the dance floor. They went up on the dance floor, they started dancing and I wasn’t quite sure what style they were using because I have a very vague memory of that day. The cheerleaders then inspired me into cheerleading after their performance. I felt, throughout their performance, that I needed to be like them. So from that day on, I decided to cheer. I started practicing and doing a lot of research to find a local cheerleading team. Another person who inspired me even more to cheer was my cousin Stephanie. I remember the way she danced was amazing and I could feel her commitment to the cheer routine. I don’t know how, but that’s just the magic of cheerleading. Throughout this journey, I have been exposed to various cheerleading styles. For example: stunting and jumping. Stunting is all about using various people to lift another person into the air. They all work together as a group. The term jumping is just using flexibility to your best ability and just flying the air. I personally like stunting better because the audience gets more entertained more. I mostly like doing stuff that shocks the audience with questions. My favorite stint is the â€Å"Liberty†. I love doing this stunt because it always leaves the audience fascinated. All my focus is towards my performance on the dance floor and how I captivate my viewers’ heedfulness. Now that I’m older I’ve decided that the best thing for me to do was just to continue my cheerleading and venture off doing others things. I decided to try-out for my high school cheerleading team and even though I was sure that I didn’t have enough skills to be accepted on the team because of all of their further skills than I. I realized that I really did have the skills to be successful on the high school cheerleading team and I made it during my freshman year of high school. Ever since then, my cheerleading skills have increased dramatically and now I feel more confident than ever. It’s my senior year of high school and I’ve continued my cheer career and I want to further continue my cheer career into college because I feel that cheerleading gives me self-confidence, healthy, and allows me to be competitive but yet channeling my inner-self. My life has advanced very differently since I’ve been into cheerleading. I used to want to pursue many other sports but was never quite interested like I am into cheerleading. I will express my life story into cheerleading. I hope that one day a person in the audience can be inspired just like the way I was. Cheerleading has been a very vital part in my life. Growing with it has made me look at the world differently in new eyes. â€Å"Remember that cheerleading has dimension beyond the physical. The body as imperfect as it always is, is only part of the picture. Your energy, the quality of your movement, your feeling about the world, your cheerleading spirit that is what we see under the hot lights will the audience is glaring out at you above. † –Dance and Cheer Magazine

Biosafety Regulation in India free essay sample

India has placed great importance on the development of a strong scientific sector since its early days as an independent country. As a subset of science and technology, India quickly identified the potential biotechnology had for fostering national development. The Sixth Five Year Plan, which set out the developmental priorities of India for 1980 1985, signalled out biotechnology as a useful tool to meet the health and agriculture needs of the Indian population. Later on, in February 1986, a full fledged Department of Biotechnology was created that was independent and which could independently pilot singularly the multi faceted development in biotechnology in the country. These development raised a lot of Biosafety concerns which led to development of regulatory regime around the world. India was one of the earliest countries to establish a biosafety system and Biosafety rules were introduced even before the Convention of Biosafety was adopted at Rio De Janeiro in 1992. The Ministry of Environment amp; Forests had enacted Environment and Protection Act in 1986 to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and the related matters. We will write a custom essay sample on Biosafety Regulation in India or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Under this act, the Rules for Manufacture, Use/Import/ Export amp; Storage Of Hazardous Micro Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989 were notified by MoEF through Notification No. 621 in Official Gazette of Govt. of India on December 5, 1989. India was thought to have a regulatory system which was in place to tackle any problem relating to bio safety but the failure of Bt cotton provoked a serious debate regarding the safety of Agriculture Biotechnology in the country. This was a major back to the government and clearly indicated the lack of regulations on the Biotechnology front. In a couple of years, there were a series of legislations to agnate Biosafety regulations which included mainly National Biosafety Act, 2002. There has been a constant chance in the Biosafety regime but the discussion on restructuring of Biosafety regulations never took a back seat and has been a concern even today after almost a decade. The seminar paper will essentially look into the Biosafety regulation in India, what are the lacunas in it. Part-I provides a very brief introduction to the topic. Part-II will be dealing with the framework of the Biosafety regulation in India. The Author has looked at both the national as well as international front. She has also tried to provide a structure of the entire regulatory framework in III part of the Paper. In Part-IV of the paper, the author will be elucidating the Biosafety regulation. The next part (Part-V) will assess the proposal for the structure change. Part V critiques the present structure which exists. Lastly, the author will conclude with certain recommendations. Part-II Framework of Biosafety Regulation When assessing the Indian legal framework for biotechnology, attention must be paid both to international compromises and internal norms. It is party to many treaties which have an impact on the domestic regulation. These treaties pertain to several public international law regimes, such as international trade law, international environmental law, intellectual property law and international human rights law. The National regime has mainly evolved from the EPA, 1986. International Level India is party to several international treaties that directly impact on biotechnology regulation and management. India is a signatory to an agreement establishing WTO, thus it is bound by its agreements and, among them two of them need to be looked into in particular: 1) the Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement The agreement prescribes the adjustment of national regulations to international standards, something which can be of relevance in case of standards aimed at safeguarding the quality, biosafety and efficacy of biotechnological products; and 2) the TRIPS agreement, It prescribes the patentability of inventions in any field of technology, including microorganisms. Indian Patent Law has also undergone a lot of changes for the need to adapt Indian law to the TRIPS Agreement. t. The Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002 introduced significant changes with regard to the patentability of biotechnological inventions. By specifically allowing for the patentability of microorganisms, the law complied with the requirement of article 27. 3(b) of the TRIPS Agreement. The exclusion of inventions which represent the ‘discovery of any living thing or non-living substance occurring in nature’, consists of ‘traditional knowledge’ or of ‘known properties of traditionally known components’ would lead to the exclusion from patentability of some biotechnology-based inventions. The Patents (Amendment) Ordinance, 2004, later replaced by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005 (Act 15 of 2005) introduced the third set of amendments to the 1970 Patent Act. The key modification was the introduction of product patents for fields of technology previously excluded from protection. This Amendment introduced a new provision (section 3(d)) aimed to prevent the grant of patents on ‘minor’ or ‘frivolous’ inventions. But the most important of them all is the CBD. Article 15. recognises the States sovereign rights over their resources and confers on them the â€Å"authority to determine access to genetic resources†. Article 15. 4 subjects access to foreign resources to â€Å"mutually agreed terms†, while article 15. 5 conditions it to the prior informed consent of the Party providing those resources. Article 15 also requires States to adopt measures to share in a fair and equitable way with the Party providing the genetic resources the r esults of research and development and the benefits deriving from their commercialization and other uses. Hence, disclosure of origin is an important element of the CBD access and benefit-sharing regime, and reflects the interrelationship of the CBD regime with the international intellectual property law system. Proving this interrelationship, in India, failure to disclose the source and origin can result in the invalidation of the patent. India is also a party to the 1977 Budapest Treaty on the Deposit of Microorganisms. Signatory States to this Treaty are obliged to recognise the deposit of a strain or sample of a microorganism claimed in a patent as disclosure of the invention. Patent applicants must deposit the material in an international depository authority. Article 10(4)(ii) of the Patents Act, 1970 alludes to the Budapest Treaty, and sets out the conditions governing the deposit of microorganisms. The Microbial Type Culture Collection and Gene Bank is a national facility established in 1986 which, since 2002, has become one of the international depository authorities capable of receiving strains or samples of microorganisms. Under the auspices of the CBD, the Cartagena Protocol was entered into force on September 11, 2003. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an Advance Informed Agreement procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol most significantly enshrines the precautionary principle. The principle is codified in Article 10. of the Protocol, enabling importing countries to base their decision of banning an import due to the potential risk it poses to human health and environment even in the absence of sufficient scientific information about the kinds and extent of risk. India ratified the Protocol and by ratifying the protocol, India and other developing countries would be able to put in place safeguards to ensure safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs and protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by LMOs,. Nat ional Level The present institutional framework is the outcome of a relatively unsystematic evolution which has in its origin the 1986 EPA. The EPA contains the legal foundations of the Indian biotechnology system. Sections 6, 8 and 25 are worth noting: Section 6 enables the Indian government to enact rules on procedures, safeguards, prohibitions and restrictions for the handling of hazardous substances; Section 8 subjects the handling of hazardous substances to safeguards and procedures; and Section 25 empowers the government to continue this task and adopt specific rules and guidelines in the field of biosafety. The provision of the Act provided for a legal background for the Rules for Manufacturing, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells. These rules were first notified under the EPA, 1986, including the elaboration of a series of guidance documents published by the DBT in 1990, 1998 and 1999. These rules cover the areas of research, development, large-scale use, and import of biotech organisms and their products. They are accompanied by a â€Å"Schedule†, which is a list that identifies and categorises animal and human pathogens according to their risk profile. The most significant provision is Rule 9, which prohibits deliberate or unintentional release of genetically-engineered organisms or cells covered under the schedule for experimental purposes, except when approved as a special case by the regulatory body concerned. It establishes that unless special permission by the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee is granted, it has prohibited the unintentional and deliberate release of genetically modified organisms and cells covered under the schedule for experimental purposes. It clarifies that â€Å"deliberate release† means intentional transfer of GMO/hazardous, microorganisms or cells to the environment or nature. As per Rule 7, the GEAC must also approve the import, export, transport, manufacture, process, use or sell of any hazardous microorganisms of GMO/substances or cells. Rule 8 requires previous approval of the regulatory body for production and discharge of genetically engineered organisms or cells into the environment. Rules 10 and 11 require permission and approval to be taken for substances, products and foodstuffs and additives that contain genetically-engineered organisms or cells. In what follows, the author describes the evolution of the Indian regulatory regime through three phases. Phase I: Establishment of Three-tier regime (1986-2002) In 1986, the government established the Department of Biotechnology imagining a new sector where India could be a global competitor. The Rules for Manufacturing, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells were notified under the EPA,1986 providing the core basis for regulating GM. The regulatory regime was structured into three tiers: firstly, an Institutional Biosafety Committee, the RCGM and lastly the GEAC. The author has described the function done by each of the committee in the later part of the paper. In 1990, DBT enacted the Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines supplementing the Biosafety Rules, which have been revised on two occasions (1994, Revised Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology and 1998, Revised Guidelines for Research in Transgenic Plants). These guidelines are crucial for conducting DNA research activities, experimentation, quality control and importation of products resulting from biotechnology. The biosafety rules have been supplemented by the Biotechnology Safety Guidelines issued by the DBT. These Guidelines have been issued in pursuance of Rule 4(2) of the Biosafety Rules, which require manuals of guidelines to be brought out by the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation, a component of the biosafety decision-making apparatus that is serviced by the DBT. The guidelines carry detailed analysis and assessment of biosafety levels. The 1990 and 1994 DBT guidelines recommend appropriate practices, equipments and facilities necessary for safeguards in handling GMOs in agriculture and pharmaceutical sectors. These guidelines cover the Ramp;D activities on GMOs, transgenic crops, large-scale production and deliberate release of GMOs, plants, animals and products into the environment, shipment and importation of GMOs for laboratory research. The 1998 DBT guidelines cover areas of recombinant DNA research on plants including the development transgenic plants and their growth in soil for molecular and field evolution. Phase II: Peak period of Critique (2002-2005) The National Biodiversity Act 2002 and the Biological Diversity Rules aimed at implementing the CBD. The National Biotechnology Act states that its goal is the conservation, sustainable utilization and equitable sharing of the benefits that result from genetic resources. In order to achieve its goals, the Act provides for access and benefit sharing mechanisms (including the disclosure of origin of the genetic material) and incorporates conservation principles. The Act also created a new Institution: the National Biodiversity Authority. Other important norms influencing activities in the biotechnology field are the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 (provides plant breeders with rights over new plant varieties), the Indian Patent Act (particularly important Section 3(d), regarding patentability criteria), Biosecurity Regulations, the Seed Act and Prevention of Food Adulteration Act. During the same time period, while the GEAC deliberated the release of the Bt Cotton varieties, news broke down that Bt cotton was in fact already planted in large area primarily in the state of Gujarat. The government eventually shut down the contraband seeds, the farmers had already managed to backcross it with their own seeds supply. In the wake of lack of legitimacy and credibility faced by the regulatory regime, a task force including some of the nations’ most distinguished scientists was invited to access the situation. The 2004 Report of the Task Force on the Application of Agricultural Biotechnology chaired by Prof. M. S. Swaminathan recommended the establishment of an autonomous, statutory and professionally-led National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority that would have two separate wings – one dealing with food and agricultural biotechnology, and the other with medical and pharmaceutical biotechnology. The Report provided a practical, specific blueprint for regulators to begin the process of renovation. Regulators integrated the recommendations into their ten year vision, the â€Å"National Biotechnology Development Strategy†, in 2005. Phase III: Peak period of transformation Under the regulatory mechanisms, the new authority recommended a competent single National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority be established with separate divisions for agriculture products/transgenic crops, pharmaceuticals/drugs and industrial products; and transgenic food/feed and transgenic animal/aquaculture. The authority is to be governed by an independent administrative structure with common chairman. The inter-ministerial group will evolve suitable proposals for consideration of the government. As regards the regulation of biotechnology, the Strategy states that the NBRA will be established as an independent, autonomous and professionally led body to provide a single window mechanism for biosafety clearance of genetically modified products and processes. DBT has been given the responsibility to set up the NBRA and until such time as the NBRA is fully functional, biotechnology regulation will continue under the existing regulatory framework. The NBRA requires the passing of its new draft bill in the Parliament before the official shift to the new regime can occur, but as of now it is yet to happen and there are no signs of the draft being introduced in House. It was supposed to be introduced in 2012 Budget session but was not owing to some technical issues. Part- III Structure There is no permanent secretariat to monitor the trials of the GMOs. Instead the regulations are implemented by various ad hoc committees. The biosafety rules are Multi-layered in nature, cross cutting between many ministries. The most important committees are: the Institutional Biosafety Committees, responsible for the local implementation of guidelines; the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulations responsible for issuing permits; and the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee responsible for monitoring the large ­scale and commercial use of transgenic materials. These committees have statutory authority. Most of the committee members are from the scientific community and staff of DBT and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. DBT appoints the members to the committees. The GEAC is supposed to be assisted by the State Biotechnology Coordination Committees and District Level Committees (DLC). However, none of the 26 states have established SBCC and DLC committees, not even in areas where field trials are already taking place. Through the biosafety regulations, Government of India established a three-tier regulatory structure at the central level in New Delhi comprising three committees: 1. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committe This committee is under Ministry of Environment and Forests. It approves the use of bioengineered products for commercial applications. This Committee is also responsible for approving activities involving large scale use of bioengineered organisms and recombinants in research and industrial production from an environmental safety angle. Imports of bioengineered food/feed or processed product derived thereof also requires the committees approval. The committee consult RCGM on technical matters relating to clearance of bioengineered crops/products. It takes punitive actions on those found violating GM rules under EPA, 1986. 2. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation The review committee functions under Department of Biotechnology. It develops guidelines for the regulatory process for research and use of bioengineered products from a biosafety angle. It is also responsible for monitoring and reviewing all ongoing GM research projects up to the multi location restricted field trial stage. The Review Committee undertakes visits to trial sites to ensure adequate security measures are taken. It issues clearance for the import of raw materials needed in GM research projects. It scrutinizes the applications made to the GEAC for the import of bioengineered products. Form Monitoring and Evaluation Committee for biotech crop research projects is also done by this committee. It appoints sub-groups when required in topics of interest to the committee. 3. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee This committee also function under the DBT. It takes note of developments in biotechnology at the national and international level and prepares suitable uidelines for safety in research and applications of GMOs. It also prepares other guidelines as may be required by the GEAC. 4. Monitoring Cum Evaluation Committee This committee is required to undertake field visits at experimental sites, suggest remedial measures to adjust original trial design, assist the RCGM in collecting and analysing field data and collect or cause to collect information on comparative agronomic advantages of transgenic plants. 5. Institutional Biosafety Committee The committee functions at research institution/Organization level. It develops a manual of guidelines for the regulatory process on bioengineered organisms in research, use and application to ensure environmental safety. It authorizes and monitors all ongoing biotech projects to the controlled multi location field stage. It also authorizes imports of bioengineered organisms/transgenic for research purposes. The committee coordinates with district and state level biotechnology committees. 6. State Biotechnology Coordination Committee It functions under the state government where biotech research occurs. It is responsible for periodical reviews the safety and control measures of institutions handling bio-engineered products. It also inspect and take punitive action through the State Pollution Control Boards or the Directorate of Health in case of violations. Nodal agency at the state level to assess damage, if any, due to release of bio-engineered organisms and take on-site control measures. 7. District-Level Committee DLC functions under the district administration where biotech research occurs. It monitors safety regulations in research and production installations. Investigate compliance with rDNA guidelines and report violations to SBCC or GEAC. It is a nodal agency at district level to assess damage, if any, due to release of bio-engineered organisms and take on-site control measures. DBT provides the secretariat for RCGM and MEC, and the MoEF for GEAC. The GoI also issued directives on the setting up a decentralised structure consisting of IBC, SBCCs and DLCs. The biosafety regulations indicate in broad terms the composition and responsibilities of all these six bodies. DBT is represented on all of them except the SBCCs and DLCs. Part III Criticism In the matter of biosafety laws and policies, India was one of the early movers in the developing world. But Indias encounter with Bt cotton – the countrys first genetically engineered crop was highly contested and it had rarely conformed to expectations. In the late 2002, Monsanto was able to get clearance for commercial planting of three varieties of genetically engineered Bt cotton from GEAC under Ministry of Environment and Forest. This started a huge debate for the sole reason that they managed to get the clearance despite the inadequate test of biosafety and viability. If that was not enough, the permission was granted without taking into consideration the fact that RFSTE had filed a case in Supreme Court the 1998 stating that there were numerous irregularities and violations of biosafety laws and guidelines in previous years trials. Even in such a situation permission was granted to Monsanto-Mahyco. There were reports pouring in from different parts of the country of a failed or unsatisfactory harvest of the first commercial transgenic Bt cotton crop. It raised several challenges for policy and governance, specially from the implementation aspect. For example, Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 provides penal provision under Section 15, which include fine and imprisonment the flagrant violation. In the case of Nav Bharat Seed Company, which released an illegal Bt Cotton variety in violation of all prescribed rules and procedures, there is no implementation of the law and they are not being punished till date. This clearly establishes ineffectiveness of the penal/liability provisions under the regime. The penal provisions are also not clear with respect to violation of the two guidelines published by the RCGM (DBT). But undoubtedly, the experience of Gujarat will be recalled in the history of biotechnology as one of the largest trial (with full public knowledge and without any responsible monitoring or evaluation by public agencies at similar scale) of an illegally released technology ever done by people themselves, oblivious of any environmental or other consequence. The iasco which happened more than a decade back where introduction of a genetically modified variety of cotton seed into the Indian agricultural system resulted in large scale crop failure, massive environmental degradation and innumerable farmer suicides shook the entire Indian legal and economic system awoke it to the fact that it was not entirely prepared to embrace what the world was hailing as a panacea to all problems of food scarcity-Genetically Modified Organisms (or GMOs). The controversy has moved from Bt cotton to futuristic GMO Bt Brinjal in the past 10 years. Biosafety regulations still comes under severe criticism even though efforts are put by the government from time to time. The biosafety framework lacks any clear hierarchy between the various bodies and there exists no demarcation between various bodies. The Monsanto-Mahyco fiasco highlighted the anomaly that existed between the understandings of field trials as mere experimental research by the DBT as opposed to deliberate release into the environment by the MoEF. In addition despite provision for authorities such as the SBCC and the DLC at the decentralized level these regulatory bodies have not been set up in most of the states and districts of the country. Industries claim that the absence of a transparent system has also led to an unnecessary doubts in the minds of the public about the implications of GMOs. Ideally, the process used to develop a national biosafety system should be transparent and the level of involvement of the public and/or stakeholder or special interest groups as legislation, regulations, or guidelines are being developed, ought to be considered. Moreover, the DBT deals with companies on a case  ­by  ­case basis. This prevents the industries from pleading their cases collectively. However, this also presents some advantage to the industries. For example, they do not have to take a public stand on any controversies regarding transgenics. Confusion exists with legislations also; At least five existing legislations in force in India have a potential impact on the regulation of GM products in the country. It is essential for the biosafety regulations to recognize them and work in tandem with them and reinforce each other. Among the most prominent problems resulting from this multiplicity is the alleged lack of coordination of the several agencies that play a role in the Indian biotech regulatory framework. These agencies are often placed under the control of different ministries, and operate at very different administrative levels. This makes it difficult to guarantee the consistency of their work and affects those who take part in the approval process of biotechnological products. With the multiplicity of authorities, the tedious and complex approval procedures have also been identified as challenges. The need for simplification and streamlining of procedures has already been acknowledged. In the specific field of agrobiotechnology, a Task Force created in 2003 came to the conclusion that the system needed â€Å"review and rationalization†, as well as a â€Å"reduction in the levels and number of steps required in evaluation and environmental clearance of GM products/transgenics† and â€Å"transparency and professionalism in the regulatory process†. Additionally, the lack of clear guidelines enables industries to have more influence on the guideline formulation and implementation. Some industries claim that the regulatory authorities often come out with whimsical guidelines. When the guidelines need amendments, arbitrary arguments arise. The usual debate between industrial firms and DBT stems from the lack of data to serve as models for local experiments. DBTs knowledge base and scientific base for determining protocol for field testing remains weak. Industrial firms prefer to use data from other countries and suggest that there is no need to reinvent the wheel in experiments involving GMOs. Even the Environmental organizations such as the Gene Campaign and the Research Foundation for Science Technology and Ecology (RESTE) criticize biosafety policy for ignoring specific Indian needs and environmental conditions. For instance, copying the USA legislation, as some critics accuse India of, neglects the dangers of cross ­ fertilization. The danger is much higher in a biodiversity ­ rich country like India compared to a biodiversity ­ poor country like USA. There are criticism that the RCGM does not involve any participation from either research level (universities, research institutes) or user level (industry, consumers, farmers). As a consequence, both the governing bodies and the system of policy making lack transparency. The absence of NGO representation in any of the regulatory committees has been particularly noted. According to Vandana Shiva of RESTE, they have the technical experts in biosafety assessment to merit participation in these committees. In the symposium in New Delhi, representatives from the Ministry of Environment and Fishery openly admitted that they do not have the structure or resources in terms of finance, expertise and facilities to ffectively assess, enforce and monitor biosafety regulations in India. At this stage, Indias experience has been limited to small field trials. Doubts are being raised about the countrys preparedness to meet the potential risks arising from GMOs. For instance, when transgenic crops are commercialized on a large scale, can biosafety regulations be monitored? As of now, the absence of an effective system to monitor imports of agricultural commodities and plan t materials appears to be highly problematic. In India the dangers of GMOs receive a lot of public and media attention. The apprehensions about GMOs are linked, amongst others, with concerns for biodiversity preservation. Cross ­fertilization may result in the loss of indigenous species because of competition in the ecological system. The potential dangers include the displacement or destruction of indigenous or endemic species; and exposure of species to new pathogens. In response to such criticisms, DBT plans to conduct activities to enhance awareness and technical expertise about biosafety. This includes training of scientists, and visits to countries with biosafety policies such as the USA. DBT hopes to improve their data base on biosafety regulations. On the other hand, NGOs such as RESTE are contributing to the information campaign. However, the overall institutional capacity building to effectively enforce and monitor biosafety policies remain inadequate. Part-V Analysis-Proposed Structural Changes The Draft Biotechnology Bill, 2008 is already surrounded by controversies even before it can become a concrete law. There are several lacunas which need to be addressed before giving final shape to this bill. First of all, the bill is â€Å"National Biotechnology Regulatory Bill, 2008† but when declared in policy it clearly states that it aims to regulate modern biotechnology in which also they have included only the genetic engineering whose products or processes it is going to regulate(other methods involved in biotechnology are haploid culturing, sterile plant generation, etc by mutagenesis). This makes the title too broad as compared to the objectives of the bill. The DBT ought to know that biotechnology covers some 30 areas, of which many need to be regulated. These areas include stem cells, nanobiotechnology, biological warfare, vaccines, bioinformatics, organ transplantation, new drug delivery systems, new materials such as spider silk and bacterial ropes, plant-based traditional drug formulations, and assisted reproductive technologies. But the proposed bill is confined to Genetically Manipulated Organisms (GMOs) and their products. There are a series of other problem highlighted by the critique. There is a need to look into fact that we have a regulatory procedure in place already involving the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) of the DBT and the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. We are first required to highlight the problems which subsists in the current procedure and then attempt to ensure that those lacuna does not exist in the new bill. There are many problems which persists in the current regulatory regime which are not addressed by the Draft Bill, 2008 as well. Taking the case where the present system does not prescribe any penalty for contamination of a non-GMO farm by GMOs in an adjoining farm, the draft bill is also silent. The central government has tried to setup a centralized authority to regulate modern biotechnology as this will enable better mobility of application forms and less problems for the applicant but, it has ignored the role of state governments in whose territory all the applications of modern biotechnology is going to take place. In case if any accident takes place for example, contamination of non-GMO farms due to nearby GMO farms, then how will National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India is going to compensate for such losses suffered by state (due to damage of its environment) and the farmer whose farm has suffered. Since, just levying fine on the guilty cannot solve the problem. The bill is supposedly up for public debate. They have ignored many stakeholders from the report who are directly going to get affected by biotechnology products or processes. Farmers are the largest stakeholders in the business of GMOs, yet their representation at the meetings appeared to be minimal and unrepresentative. In addition, the selection and eligibility criterion for selecting the person for a particular function is not mentioned properly. All this reduces the transparency of the proposed Bill. The proposed bill has little substantive content, and no rules and regulations have been circulated or debated. Whatever little substance it has, is entirely industry-centric and not people or farmer-centric. They have not mentioned the rules in detail, which is creating the mystery over the whole policy functioning. For example, they talk about taking measures to regulate the use of genetically engineered organisms and products derived thereof as, or in, food and use in human or animal health, agriculture or other applications in India. However, no description of the procedure is given. There are other provisions in the proposed legislation which are cause for concern. For example, there is provision for establishing a tribunal to try cases related to biotechnology. This means that any legal case pertaining to biotechnology will not be under the purview of the judiciary of the land, instead it will come under the purview of this specially constituted tribunal which is unlikely to dispense these cases with fairness. On the other hand, the law does not lay down any norms for the proper labeling of GM crops or food products derived from them. This regulation is essential because there is no other way to distinguish between GM and unmodified food crops. This regulation is strictly followed in all European countries, and if such a regulation is not followed in India all exports of food products, vegetables, flowers etc. to the European Union from India will be stopped. The major change that the Draft Bill brings is the establishment of the NBSA which is going to be an autonomous body. The proposed authority is top-heavy. It would make the processing of an application far more cumbersome than it is today. It has been said that the proposed authority will be autonomous but the bill does not say how that autonomy would be exercised. Finally, the use of term international standards is very much vague. Since, countries have their own policies, so which country policy are they referring as each country has its own policy. For example, will they follow Switzerland, which has put a moratorium on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) until 2012, or the European Union, which requires labeling of GM food, or the U. S. that, for all practical purposes, has no regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). These are some of the issues which needs to be addressed and taken account of before passing yet another law in the series of law which already exists but fail to serve the purpose for which they exist. Part Conclusion As a developing country which is agrarian economy, India still has much to gain from the creation of the regulatory framework that can promote biosafe application of GE technology. Thus, the answer to the problems of biosafety regulations in India is neither simple nor straightforward. The debates on the success or failure of GM crops or biotechnology are going to continue but by trying to pass the Draft legislation the government is trying to send the message that no hindrance would be brooked in India on the path of widespread introduction of GM crops in India by the multinational corporations. But it is important to keep in mind that biotechnology-driven agriculture is so capital intensive that small farmers are not able to sustain it, and are driven off from their lands and livelihoods. The goal of the Indian regulatory system is to ensure that GM crops pose no major risk to food safety, environmental safety, and agricultural production, and that there are no adverse economic impacts on farmers. As more genetically engineered plants are being developed for commercial release, concerns have been expressed about their safety. The concept of food safety assurance has assumed importance as with any method of genetic manipulation, there is a possibility of introducing unintended changes along with intended changes, which in turn have an impact on the health and nutritional status of the consumer. The author did an extensive study of the regulatory regime and realised that the establishment of a transparent and credible biosafety regulatory framework is essential for the commercialization of biotechnology products. To sum up in the words of M. S. Swaminathan, â€Å"GM foods have the potential to solve many of the world’s hunger and malnutrition problems, and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides. Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation, industrial policy and food labeling.

10 Fascinating Facts About Fireflies and Lightning Bugs

10 Fascinating Facts About Fireflies and Lightning Bugs Fireflies or lightning bugs are from the family Coleoptera:Lampyridae, and they may well be our most beloved insect, inspiring poets and scientists alike.  Most importantly to remember, fireflies are neither flies nor bugs. Fireflies are actually beetles and there are 2,000 species on our planet. Here are other interesting facts about fireflies. The Flight of Fireflies Like all other beetles, lightning bugs have hardened forewings called elytra, which meet in a straight line down the back when at rest. In flight, fireflies hold the elytra out for balance, and rely on their membranous hindwings for movement. These traits place fireflies squarely in the order Coleoptera. Fireflies Are the Worlds Most Efficient Light Producers An incandescent light bulb gives off 90 percent of its energy as heat and only 10 percent as light, which is something you know if youve ever touched one thats been turned on for a while. If fireflies produced that much heat when they lit up, they would incinerate themselves. Fireflies produce light through an efficient chemical reaction called chemiluminescence that allows them to glow without wasting heat energy. For fireflies, 100 percent of the energy goes into making light; and accomplishing that flashing increases the firefly metabolic rates an astonishingly low 37 percent above resting values. Fireflies are bioluminescent, which means they are living creatures that can produce light. That trait is shared with only a handful of other terrestrial insects, such as click beetles and railroad worms. The light is used to attract prey and members of the opposite sex, and warn off predators. Lightning bugs taste bad to birds and other potential predators, so the warning signal is a memorable one to those that have sampled before. Fireflies Talk to Each Other Using Light Signals Fireflies dont put on those spectacular summer displays just to entertain us. Youre actually eavesdropping on the firefly singles bar. Male fireflies cruising for mates flash a species-specific pattern to announce their availability to receptive females. An interested female will reply, helping the male locate her where shes perched, often on low vegetation. Fireflies Are Bioluminescent Throughout Their Life Cycles We dont often see fireflies before they reach adulthood, so you may not know that fireflies glow in all life stages. Bioluminescence begins with the egg and is present throughout the entire lifecycle. In fact, all firefly eggs, larvae, and pupae known to science are capable of producing light. Some firefly eggs emit a faint glow when disturbed. The flashing part of fireflies is called a lantern, and the flashing is controlled by the firefly using neural stimulation and nitric oxide. The males often synchronize their flashes with one another during courtship, a capacity called entraining (responding to an external rhythm) once thought only possible in humans, but now recognized in several animals. Colors of firefly lights range widely among different species, from yellow-green to orange to turquoise to a bright poppy red. Fireflies Spend Most Their Lives As Larva The firefly begins life as a bioluminescent spherical egg. At the end of the summer, adult females lay about 100 eggs in soil or near the soil surface. The worm-like larva hatches out in three to four weeks and throughout the fall hunts prey using a hypodermic-like injection strategy similar to bees. Larvae spend the winter below ground in several types of earthen chambers. Some species spend more than two winters before pupating, in late spring, and they emerge as adults from their pupa after a period of 10 days to several weeks. Adult fireflies live only another two months, spending the summer mating and performing for us before laying eggs and dying. Not All Adult Fireflies Flash Fireflies are known for their blinking light signals, but not all fireflies flash. Some adult fireflies, most notably those that inhabit the western areas of North America, dont use light signals to communicate. Many people falsely believe that fireflies dont exist west of the Rockies since flashing populations are rarely seen there...but they do. Firefly Larvae Feed on Snails Firefly larvae are carnivorous predators, and their favorite food is escargot. Most firefly species inhabit moist, terrestrial environments, where they feed on snails or worms in the soil. But a few Asian species use gills to breathe underwater, where they eat aquatic snails or other mollusks. Some species are arboreal, and their larvae hunt tree snails. Some Fireflies Are Cannibals We dont know much about what adult fireflies eat. Most dont seem to feed at all, while some are believed to eat mites or pollen. We do know what Photuris fireflies eat, though- other fireflies. Photuris females enjoy munching on males of other genera. These well-known Photuris femme fatales use a trick called aggressive mimicry to make meals of other fireflies. When a male firefly of another genus flashes its light signal, the female Photuris firefly replies with the males flash pattern, suggesting she is a receptive mate of his own species. She continues luring him in, closer and closer, until hes within her reach. Then her meal begins. Adult female Photuris fireflies are also kleptoparasitic and can be seen feeding on a silk-wrapped Photinus species firefly (occasionally even one of its own kind) hanging in a spiders web. Epic battles can occur between the spider and the firefly. Sometimes the firefly can hold off the spider long enough to consume the silk-wrapped prey, sometimes the spider cuts the web and her losses, sometimes the spider catches the firefly and the prey and gets them both wrapped up in silk. Firefly Luciferase Is Used in Medical Research Scientists have developed remarkable uses for firefly luciferase in the research lab. Luciferase is the enzyme that produces bioluminescence in fireflies. It has been used as markers to detect blood clots, to tag tuberculosis virus cells, and to monitor hydrogen peroxide levels in living organisms; hydrogen peroxide is believed to play a role in the progression of some diseases, like cancer and diabetes. Fortunately, scientists can now use a synthetic form of luciferase for most research, so the commercial harvest of fireflies has decreased. Firefly populations are decreasing, and the search for luciferase is just one of the reasons. Climate change and modern construction have resulted in the loss of firefly habitats, and light pollution depresses the ability for fireflies to find mates and reproduce. Some Fireflies Synchronize Their Flash Signals Imagine thousands of fireflies lighting up at precisely the same time, over and over, from dusk to dark. This simultaneous bioluminescence, as it is called by scientists, occurs in just two places in the world: Southeast Asia and Great Smoky Mountains National Park, right here in the U.S. North Americas lone synchronous species, Photinus carolinus, puts on its light show in late spring each year. The most spectacular show is said to be the mass synchronous display of several Pteroptyx species in Southeast Asia. Masses of male fireflies congregate in groups (called leks) and in unison emit rhythmic courtship flashes. One hotspot for ecotourism is the Selangor River in Malaysia. Lek collective courting happens occasionally in American fireflies, but not for long periods. In the American Southeast, male members of the blue ghost firefly (Phausis reticulate) glow steadily as they fly slowly over the forest floor searching for females from about 40 minutes after sunset until midnight. Both sexes emit a long-lasting, nearly continuous glow in the forested regions of Appalachia. Annual tours to see the blue ghosts can be joined at state forests in South and North Carolina between April and July. Sources Buschman, Lawrent L. Biology of the Firefly Pyractomena Lucifera (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). The Florida Entomologist 67.4 (1984): 529–42. Print.-. Larval Biology and Ecology of Photuris Fireflies (Lampyridae: Coleoptera) in Northcentral Florida. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 57.1 (1984): 7–16. Print.Day, John C., Tim I. Goodall, and Mark J. Bailey. The Evolution of the Adenylate-Forming Protein Family in Beetles: Multiple Luciferase Gene Paralogues in Fireflies and Glow-Worms. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 50.1 (2009): 93–101. Print.De Cock, Rapha, et al. Courtship and Mating in Phausis Reticulata (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): Male Flight Behaviors, Female Glow Displays, and Male Attraction to Light Traps. The Florida Entomologist 97.4 (2014): 1290–307. Print.Faust, Lynn, et al. Thieves in the Night: Kleptoparasitism by Fireflies in the Genus Photuris Dejean (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 66.1 (2012): 1–6. Prin t.Lewis, Sara M., and Christopher K. Cratsley. Flash Signal Evolution, Mate Choice, and Predation in Fireflies. Annual Review of Entomology 53.1 (2008): 293–321. Print. Martin, Gavin J., et al. Total Evidence Phylogeny and the Evolution of Adult Bioluminescence in Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 107 (2017): 564–75. Print.Moosman, Paul R., et al. Do Courtship Flashes of Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) Serve as Aposematic Signals to Insectivorous Bats? Animal Behaviour 78.4 (2009): 1019–25. Print.Wilson, Margaret, and Peter F. Cook. Rhythmic Entrainment: Why Humans Want to, Fireflies Can’t Help It, Pet Birds Try, and Sea Lions Have to Be Bribed. Psychonomic Bulletin Review 23.6 (2016): 1647–59. Print.

Bt and Gypsy Moth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bt and Gypsy Moth - Essay Example trees. Sparks, Michaels and Daniels (2013) reiterate that the larvae of Lymantria dispar have often caused significant defoliation in the past. Lymantria dispar’s life cycle usually start over the season of winter when the insects lay large masses of eggs. Ruiu and Roberto (2013) reiterate that these eggs hatch in generous numbers over the seasons of spring. Lymantria dispar represents a noteworthy risk to forests in various parts of the world. Preservation of the Cork Oak Forest would require implementation of proper management programs. In the past, forest conservation bodies have often considered several management approaches to control the adverse effects of Lepidopteran defoliators. However, some biological and practical limitations have of alternative pest control methods to contain the infestation of the defoliators over large tracks of lands have been observed. Currently, environmental conservation bodies have concentrated on the use of entomopathogenic microorganisms such as Bacillusthuringiensis (Btk) given the reason that these organisms’ impacts can be felt over large areas. Bacillusthuringiensis (Btk) products have become increasingly crucial as integrated means of pest management and are incessantly being employed in the control of pests in agro systems and forests around the globe. Bacillusthuringiensis (Btk) formulae that are used in the control of Lepidoptera consist of a concoction that includes parasporal bodies such as crystals and bacterial spores. The parasporal bodies contain insecticidal toxins such as the cry proteins. In the view of Sparks, Michaels and Daniels (2013), the gypsy moths consume the proteins which become activated after they are injected into their bodies. The proteins then become bound to specific plasma membrane receptors on the midgut section of the insect pests; epithelium. They sip into the cell membrane and determine the formation of

Aunt Jullia and the scriptwriter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aunt Jullia and the scriptwriter - Essay Example Though age has no barrier where love is concerned, yet how the couple goes about fulfilling their dreams with each other is what is going to be discussed in this essay. This comedic novel is neither an autobiography nor history but an endearing portrait painted by the artist himself that sheds light on his journey of becoming a novelist. This novel is the story of a young writer whose aspirations and dreams are put at risk due to his love for his aunt-in-law Julia. It is a story where a young boy falls in love with his own aunt, a thirty two year old divorcee. The writer’s romantic association with Julia complicates his life and puts his career as a writer at risk. His writing suffers as he is busy living life to its fullest. His laborious writing laden with symbolism is doomed from inception. Aunt Julia enters his life at a time when he is trying to establish himself as a writer and find an individual identity without the help of his family. Julia and Mario are quite in love with each other, but when the relatives come to know of the news they disapprove totally and the couple flees to a town they don’t know anything about with the intention of getting married and leading a happy and peaceful life. In the melee, Mario chances upon Pedro Camacho, a Bolivian serial author, who is a soap opera radio writer  and he befriends him. ... be fired from his job due to his inconsistency in keeping control over his characters, who seemed to die in one of the episodes and again reappear in the next, getting his audience totally confused over the happenings. Mario does not want to keep the secret of his love for Julia any longer and so confronts his family stating that he would provide Julia with a good life. Julia encourages Mario and supports him in every way possible and encourages him to pursue his dream of going to Paris and becoming a writer. It was during this time that Pedro Camacho loses his mind totally and is rushed off to the mental hospital. Becoming a man of letters was the primary aim of Mario who keeps writing a lot. However, his writing is not much appreciated by his friends who feel that he still has to gain a lot of experience in the arena of writing. Mario admires Pedro’s talent and skill for writing and tries to emulate his love for hard work. Mario meets Pedro when he gets hired by his employer s to the same radio station where Mario works to write scripts for the radio serials. The radio stations gains a lot of popularity when the serials become quite famous in the capital. Pedro comes up with shockingly different characters that keep the audience spell bound. Though he gains the height of popularity, yet as time passes he makes a hash of his work by mixing up the different characters and changing their names. He gets totally confused with his own work and also confuses the audience to a great extent. He finds it impossible to go on and tells Mario of his problems. Pedro finally loses his reality and is hospitalized. Irony plays a major role in Mario’s ‘Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter’ but at a much deeper level, it speaks of artistic failure. On one hand, we have Mario desiring

Questions - Negotiation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Questions - Negotiation - Essay Example Similarly, any of the Kilmann’s models may be suitable depending on the characteristic of the condition and the negotiators personalities. Discussion 1. Identify and describe the 5 conflict handling modes as set forth in the Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument Kilmann’s approaches of dispute resolution entails the following. Avoidance The avoiding management of conflict approach is low on cooperativeness and aggressiveness. This means that the manager is not highly cooperative in assisting the other parties to attain their objectives; neither is he assertively pursuing his suitable results in the case. Avoidance model of conflict management is often counterproductive, always resulting to depression and further problems. The people who persistently avoid conflicts trigger feelings of aggressiveness, anger and vengeance within themselves, triggering increased anxiety. In this approach, initial challenge, conflict, or condition is not directly attended or resolved. In a ddition, avoiding attitude may be suitable when the matter is perceived as being trivial. It is also a suitable approach to employ when there is a higher chance of winning the case or when distraction would be highly expensive. Competition Competing conflict management model is also described as the win-lose strategy and is characterized by increased assertiveness and reduced cooperativeness. The manager aims to achieve her own appropriate benefits at the advantage of his opponents. This model may be suitable when immediate decisive actions are required, such as in cases of emergencies. The approach can also be appropriate to confront unusual actions like urgent cost reduction. Accommodation style This approach reflects an increased degree of unity, and it has been considered obliging. Negotiator using this approach subjugate his goals anticipated results and objectives to enable other parties to attain their objectives and results. This approach is most suitable when parties unders tand that they did a mistake or when the matter is highly crucial to one party than another. This conflict management approach is vital for safeguarding future relationships amidst the parties. Compromising Compromising conflict management approach is characterized by relative degree of both cooperativeness and aggressiveness. Compromise, also known as bargaining, produces moderate output. This behavior may be employed when the objectives of the two sides are of similar significance, when the two parties have equal authority, or when it is vital to look for a semi permanent, timely remedy. The approach should not be utilized in case of a complicated challenge demanding a conflict solving style. Collaboration Collaborative conflict management style is intensive on both aggressiveness and cooperativeness. It is also considered the win-win mechanism. Both parties innovatively strive towards attaining the anticipated results and goals of all the individuals involved. The approach is sui table when the matter is complex, and an innovative or novel comprehension of ideas is required. The limitation of this style is that the collaborating process mandates genuine efforts by all the individuals involved, and it might need extra time to reach an agreement. The above five Kilmann’

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement To what extent are schedules of reinforcement more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced? Illustrate your answer with basic and applied research examples. I am writing this essay in order to illustrate the role of schedules of reinforcement; basic and applied research examples provide evidence that schedules of reinforcement are more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced. A schedule of reinforcement is defined as a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, those environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007). There are two basic types in a schedule of reinforcement: a continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF schedule) is one in which each occurence of a response is reinforced, and an intermittent reinforcement schedule where each occurence of the response is not reinforced; rather, responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced (Miltenberger, 2008). Ferster and Skinner (1957) studied various types of intermittent reinforcement schedules and described four basic types in this category: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval. In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, a specific or fixed number of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered; in a variable ratio (VR) schedule, delivery of a reinforcer is based on the number of responses that occur, but in this case, the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time, around an average number; in a fixed interval (FI) schedule, the interval of time is fixed, or stays the same each time; in a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an interval of time has elapsed (Miltenberger, 2008). There are also some variations on the basic intermittent schedules of reinforcement: a) the schedules of differential reinforcement of rates of responding and, b) the progressive schedules of reinforcement. Differential reinforcement provides an intervention for behavior problems associated with rate of response and that means that it is a variation of ratio schedule; delivery of the reinforcer is contingent on responses occuring at a rate either higher than or lower than some predetermined criterion (Cooper, 2007). The reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion is called differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH); when responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion, the schedule provides differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL). There is also the differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule that provides reinforcement at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterio n that is gradually decreased across time intervals based on the individuals performance (Cooper, 2007). Progessive schedules of reinforcement by contrast, systematically thin each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participants behavior (Cooper, 2007), Progressive ratio (PR) and progressive interval (PI) schedules of reinforcement change schedule requirements using a) arithmetic progressions to add a constant amount to each successive ratio or interval or b) geometric progressions to add successively a constant proportion of the preceding ratio or interval (Lattal Neef, 1996). Additionally, applied behavior analysts combine the elements of continuous reinforcement, the four schedules of reinforcement, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding and extinction to form compound schedules of reinforcement. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement occur when a) two or more contingencies of reinforcement b) operate independently and simultaneously c)for two or more behaviors (Cooper, 2007). Discriminative schedules of reinforcement consist of a) multiple schedules -present two or more basic schedules of reinforrcement in an alterating, usually random, sequence; the basic schedules within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently and a discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic schedule; the stimulus is present as long as the schedule is in effect- and b) chained schedules -the multiple and chained schedules have two or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and have a discriminative stimulus correlated wi th each independent schedule (Cooper, 2007). Nondiscriminative schedules consist of a) mixed schedules -use an identical procedure to multiple ones but, without discriminative stimuli- and b) tandem schedules -identical to chained schedules, but also without the discriminative stimuli (Cooper, 2007). Now through basic and applied research examples from all types of schedules of reinforcement, it is going to be shown the role of schedules of reinforcement; the schedules of reinforcement play a major role in a behavior change program, and also in the acquisition and maintenance of a behavior. In the study of Kirby and Shields (1972), a systematic measure of changes in academic response rate and accuracy through a more direct approach to academic performance was conducted. The study was designed to measure the combined effects of an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule of immediate praise and immediate correctness feedback on the arithmetic response rate of a seventh- grade student and to measure possible collateral changes in study behavior. The study was divided into four phases: baseline, treatment 1, reversal, treatment 2. Using an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule, delivery of reinforcement was initially given for every two problems completed; then, the experimenter gradually increased the units of work or number of problems completed before delivering reinforcement. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the fixed-ratio schedule of praise and immediate correctness feedback in increasing the subjects arithmetic response rate and associated attending behavior. When students rate of correct problem solving was increased through systematic reinforcement, incompatible behaviors of non-attending decreased. It was also noted that during reversal, when all praise and immediate correctness feedback was withheld, the subject maintained a much higher level of arithmetic achievement and attending behavior than before treatment 1. The adjusting ratio schedule of reinforcement frequent contact with the student during early ph ases requiring small units of work, it requires no extra effort during later phases when large units of work are assigned. In the study of De Luca and Holborn (1992), the effects of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement on pedaling a stationary exercise bicycle were examined. A changing-criterion design was used in which each successive criterion was increased over mean performance rate in the previous phase by approximately 15%. The participants were 3 obese and 3 nonobese boys. The experimental phases were: baseline, VR-first subphase (the VR schedule of reinforcement was introduced after a stable baseline had been achieved), VR-second subphase (stability had been achieved in the first subphase), VR-third subphase (stability was achieved for the second subphase), return to baseline and return to VR third subphase. All participants had systematic increases in their rate of pedaling with each VR value, meaning that the larger the variable ratio, the higher the rate of response. The results indicated that the rate of exercise can be increased using a VR schedule of reinforcement. The introduction of the initial VR subphase of the changing-criterion design produced marked increases in the rate of exercise for all subjects. Rasmussen and Oneill (2006), examined the effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of students with emotional-behavioral disorders in a clinical day-treatment classroom setting. The participants were three elementary-aged students and the dependent variable for all 3 participants was the frequency of verbal disruptions. The study employed an ABAB withdrawl design, alternating between baseline and FI conditions -verbal praise and pats on the arm were provided, with a final brief schedule thinning phase for each participant. All participants exhibited variable but relatively high rates during baseline. Implementation of FT schedules resulted in immediate, substantial, and stable decreases for all participants. The results of this study demonstrate the use of FT schedules and their implementation in a day-treatment classroom setting with children with clinically diagnosed emotional or behavioral disorders. These procedures were effective in reducing disruptive verbal behavior and these reductions were maintained while the FI schedules underwent initial thinning. The effectiveness of fixed-time schedules has also been evaluated through data on both appropriate and inappropriate responses. In the study of Roane, Fisher and Sgro (2001), fixed-time schedules were used in order to reduce destructive behavior but also, to increase adaptive behavior. The participant was a 12-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder and traumatic brain injury. There were two conditions: control condition and FT condition; with the exception of the FT schedule of reinforcement, the FT condition was identical to the control condition. During the FT condition, increases in two adaptive responses were observed, even though neither response was reinforced through direct contingencies. Similarly, decreases in destructive behavior were obtained under the FT schedule. The results suggest that, in addition to suppressing inappropriate behavior, FT schedules may also increase and stabilize adaptive behavior. Austin and Soeda (2008), validated the use of fixed-time reinforcer delivery with typically developing population. A fixed-time teacher attention was used to decrease off-task behavior in two third-grade boys. An ABAB was used with two phases: baseline (the teacher interacted with the boys in her usual manner) and noncontingent reinforcement-NCR (the teacher provided attention on an FT schedule). The findings indicated that NCR was an effective strategy for reducing the off-task behaviors of both boys, as immediate and sustained reductions in the percentage of intervals with off-task behavior were observed. Van Camp, Lerman, Kelley, Contrucci and Vondran (2000), evaluated the efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement with variable interval schedules in reducing problem behavior maintained by social consequences, comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who had been diagnosed with moderate to severe mental retardation. Baseline and treatment conditions -with FT and VT sessions- were conducted in both participants. Although previous studies on the use of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have primarily examined FT schedules, results of this study indicated that VT schedules were as effective as FT schedules in reducing problem behavior. Carr, Kellum and Chong (2001), examined the effects of fixed-time and variable-time schedules on responding with 2 adults with mental retardation. Multielement and reversal designs were used to compare the effects of FT and VT schedules previously maintained on variable-ratio reinforcement schedules. The target behavior for the first participant was defined as making a penci mark on his name and placing the paper into the receptable. The target behavior for the second participant was defined as picking up a paper clip and dropping it in the receptable. The experimental phases were: baseline, FR 1 reinforcement, VR 3 reinforcement, FT, VT. The results showed that both FT and VT schedules were equally effective in reducing the target behaviors. Wright and Vollmer (2002), used a treatment package that involved an adjusting differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate responding (DRL) schedule, response blocking and prompts in order to reduce rapid eating. The participant was a 17-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with profound mental retardation. The experimental phases consisted of baseline and treatment condition, where an adjusting DRL procedure was introduced, along with blocking and prompts. The DRL intervals were determined by calculating the average IRT from previous sessions. The results showed that the treatment package was effective in increasing the IRTs between each attempted bite of food. The treatment package also resulted in an increase in the negative side-effects (increase in the levels of SIB and tantrums). However, the treatment continued despite these side-effects, which eventually decreased. In the study of Dietz and Repp (1973), a differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule was used in order to decrease classroom misbehavior. The procedure that was followed was that reinforcement was produced when responding was less than a limit for a period of time, rather than when a response followed a specified period of no responding. Three experiments were conducted. In the first experiment DRD schedule was implemented to reduce the talking-out behavior of one 11-year old boy, classified as trainable mentally retarded (TRM) in a special classroom. The second experiment involved the reduction of talk-outs in a group of ten TRM students in an also special classroom, and the third experiment involved the use of a DRD schedule to reduce the verbal behavior of a group of 15 high school students in a regular class. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of DRD schedules in reducing classroom disruption both in individual and in group behaviors. In addition, the success with both TRM students and with high school students suggests the efficacy of DRD schedules across widely divergent groups. In the present study the use of positive reinforcement suggests also a nonpunitive method of classroom control. Roane, Lerman and Vorndran (2001), tried to examine if the reinforcing stimuli can be differentially effective as response requirements increase by evaluating responding under increasing schedule requirements via progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. In experiment 1 (reinforcer assessment), four individuals with developmental disabilities, who had been referred for the assessment and treatment of severe behavior problems, participated. The findings showed that one stimulus was associated with greater response persistence under increasing schedule requirements for all participants. Results also suggested that progressive schedules allow a relatively expeditious examination of shifts in reinforcer preference or value under increasing schedule requirements. In experiment 2, the correspondence between responding under progressive schedules and levels of destructive behavior under various reinforcement-based treatments was examined in order to evaluate the utility of the reinforcer assessment. Three interventions were selected: noncontingent reinforcement, DRA and DRO. Results indicated that the high-preference stimuli identified via this assessment were more likely to reduce problem behavior or increase adaptive behavior than stimuli identified as less preferred. In summary, results of this study suggest that stimuli identified as similarly preferred via a commonly used preference assessment were differentially effective under increasing schedule requirements. Additionally, stimuli that were more effective under progressive schedules were more likely to produce decreases in problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. The influence of concurrent reinforcement schedules on behavior change without the use of extinction was examined by Hoch, McComas and Thomson (2002). Two responses were measured: problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement, and task completion in three children with autism. Moreover, the maintenance of behavior change was evaluated under conditions of increased response requirements and leaner schedules of reinforcement. The results showed that immediate and sustained decreases in problem behavior and increases in task completion occurred when task completion produced both negative reinforcement and access to preferred activities and problem behavior continued to result in negative reinforcement. The findings demonstrated that concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be arranged to decrease negatively reinforced problem behavior and increase an adaptive alternative response without the use of escape extinction. Tiger and Hanley (2004), described a multiple-schedule procedure to reduce ill-timed requests, which involved providing children with two distinct continuous signals that were correlated with periods in which teacher attention was either available or unavailable. Cammilleri, Tiger and Hanley (2008), conducted a study in order to assess the efficacy of a classwide application of the multiple-schedule procedure described by Tiger and Hanley when implemented by teachers during instructional periods in three elementary classrooms. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of a classwide multiple-schedule procedure when implemented by teachers in a private elementary school classroom. Conclusively, schedules of reinforcement are not only rules that govern which responses will be reinforced; they are substantial components of a behavior change program. CRF schedules are used in the acquisition of a behavior -when a person is learning a behavior or engaging in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learned the behavior, an intermittent reinforcement schedule is used so that the person continues to engage in the behavior -maintenance of behavior (Miltenberger, 2008). In this way, schedules of reinforcement help in the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement, which is a major goal for most behavior change programs. It was shown that schedules of reinforcement can be applied effectively in different settings, behaviors, populations. They have been used to decrease inappropriate behaviors such as rapid eating (Wright Vollmer, 2002) or classroom misbehavior (Dietz Repp, 1973); to increase appropriate behaviors such as arithmetic response rate and attending behavior (Kirby Shields, 1972). They have also been applied in both typically developing children (e.g. Austin Soeda, 2008), and in children with behavior problems (e.g. Rasmussen ONeill, 2006). Schedules of reinforcement can have great effects in a behavior change program, but it is also very important to know how and when to apply the most appropriate schedule or a combination of them in a specific behavior. References Austin, J. L., Soeda, J. M. (2008). Fixed-time teacher attention to decrease off-task behaviors of typically developing third graders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 279-283. Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Carr, J. E., Kellum, K. K., Chong, I. M. (2001). The reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement: Fixed-time versus variable-time schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 505-509. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. De Luca, R. V., Holborn, S. W. (1992). Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 671-679. Dietz, S. M., Repp, A. C. (1973). Decreasing classroom misbehavior through the use of DRL schedules of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 457-463. Hoch, H., McComas, J. J. and Thomson, A. L., Paone, D. (2002). Concurrent reinforcement schedules: Behavior change and maintenance without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 155-169. Kirby, F. D., Shields, F. (1972). Modification of arithmetic response rate and attending behavior in a seventh-grade student. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 79-84. Lattal, K. A., Neef, N. A. (1996). Recent reinforcement-schedule research and applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 213-220. Cited in Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Rasmussen, K., ONeill, R. E. (2006). The effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders in a day-treatment classroom setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 453-457. Roane, H. S., Fisher, W. W., Sgro, G. M. (2001). Effects of a fixed-time schedule on aberrant and adaptive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 333-336. Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C. and Vorndran, C. M. (2001). Assessing reinforcers under progressive schedule requirements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 145-167. Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2004). Developing stimulus control of preschooler mands: An analysis of schedule-correlated and contingency-specifying stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 517-521. Cited in Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Van Camp, C. M., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Contrucci, S. A., Vorndran, C. M. (2000). Variable-time reinforcement schedules in the treatment of socially maintained problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 545-557. Wright, C. S., Vollmer, T. R. (2002). Evaluation of a treatment package to reduce rapid eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 89-93.